Thus, in some contexts, punishment may be motivated by the desire to reciprocally harm cheating partners, even if the cheating partner did not experience higher payoffs than the victim.
For recently diverged species, lineage sorting can be incomplete and widespread in genomes, but new coalescent methods exist that can help to detect signals of species even before lineages have become reciprocally monophyletic [ 3].
Even a small number of reciprocally lost loci between separate populations could result in hybrid offspring being unlikely to possess a full complement of essential genes (Lynch and Force 2000).
Doyle's method relies on the expectation that it takes less time for diverging populations to reach mutual allelic exclusivity than reciprocal allelic monophyly: hence, groups of individuals that do not have any allele in common can be assumed to belong to distinct species even though they are not reciprocally monophyletic.
This reciprocation of ties leads to the formation of interaction patterns that are reciprocated dyads (two individuals connected reciprocally) and triads (three individuals connected reciprocally).
Complement and Acc. Introns displayed the higher p N/p S values, even if not all-pairwise comparisons were reciprocally significant (fig. 1 and supplementary tables S6 and S7, Supplementary Material online).
In this view, the two impairments in PFC and NAc are probably even causally related, since alterations of DA metabolism in the PFC reciprocally change the DA activity in the striatum [ 57- 62].
Even if the red wolf and coyote are too closely related to have reciprocally monophyletic mitochondrial lineages, extensive hybridization between them could have led to an increase in genetic variability in the remaining coyote population.
The same result was obtained even when the sense and the anti-sense strand were expressed by the reciprocally changed promoter.
Reciprocally, females may benefit from signalling if they compete for mates, which may be the case even in multimale groups of non-seasonally breeding species (where only a few females are typically receptive at the same time) [ 33].
