The dependent variables in the GEEs were whether the male received aggression from non-focal males, and whether or not focal males aggressed against non-focal males.
The heritabilities of performed aggression traits were intermediate (h2 F_A1=0.17, h2 F_A2=0.24), but lower for received aggression (h2 F_R1=0.06, h2 F_R2=0.04), and heritability of maternal behaviour was also low (h2=0.08).
The percentage of aggressive sexual harassment is equally high when compared to the food context: the percentage of aggression in response to unconcealed snatching of food [52%% of unconcealed attempts received aggression (Overduin - de Vries et al. 2014)].
Age also had an effect on the outcome of an approach with approaching adults receiving aggression less often (9 % of approaches) than subadults (28%% of approaches) (Table 2), but the interaction between grunting and age was not significant.
However, avoiding inbreeding in this way could be costly for females, for example, through retaliation by cuckolded males or through receiving aggression while prospecting for extra-group mating opportunities.
However, contrary to our prediction, these isotocin-treated fish received more aggression from their group-mates and were more likely to be evicted than fish receiving a saline control injection.
Despite the clear bias in aggression partitioning made by the α-worker towards the bee next in hierarchy in the 10-bee groups, the β-worker (and to some extent also the γ-female) still received less aggression compared to those in the smaller groups.
Hatlen et al. [ 26] found that fast-growing fish also had a lower incidence of fin damage than slow-growing fish, which suggests that the fish that received most aggression may have been prevented from feeding.
In the experiment on the accuracy of chemical mimicry, the cuticular profile of isolated silverfish was also less similar to host workers (PERMANOVA, P < 0.001) and the same silverfish individuals received more aggression in contact studies than non-isolated individuals did (PERMANOVA, P ≤ 0.004; Figure 5).
Workers that were introduced into the established groups in experiment 4 had higher vg, performed significantly less aggression, and received slightly more aggression (although not statistically significant Tables 1 and 2, Figure 3), while both aggressive and aggressed workers in experiment 3 expressed higher levels of vg.
This was unexpected because many other studies on social mammals have reported a link between aggression, often aggression received, and GC levels [Creel, 2005; Creel et al., 1996; Crockford et al., 2008; Emery Thompson et al., 2010; Goymann et al., 2001; Hackländer et al., 2003; Pride, 2005; Wallner et al., 1999].
