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But studies linking psychological state to prognosis are fraught with methodological issues, false-positive results, reporting of associations rather than causality, and manipulation of statistics.
The issue of predetermined fate and the 'gods' of Baltimore frequently crop up in discussion of the show, but what if the writers fell down on the side of chaos theory rather than causality?
Firstly, the study was cross-sectional, which limits interpretations to associations rather than causality.
The different dimensions of the dataset allow identification of subtle correlations (rather than causality) between borrowers' daily behaviors and their financial behaviors.
While difference-in-differences models have been proposed as a way to tease out policy impacts, in this case, data limitations limit interpretation to association rather than causality.
In this case, association between outcome and methylation reflects sharing of genetic controls rather than causality.
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Therefore, due to potential regressor endogeneity, the estimated coefficients will have to be interpreted as correlations rather than causalities.
Therefore, the observed relationships between OA pain and productivity should be considered associative rather than causal, since direct causality cannot be inferred regarding the OA pain as a source of lost productivity, especially given that workers with OA pain were characterized by a significantly greater comorbidity burden than workers without OA pain.
For other payers rates are not set by hospital-level negotiation, and so the relation of HHI to PCRs most likely reflects geographic correlation with causal factors rather than direct causality.
Their emphasis lies on forecast accuracy rather than on causality.
The study is limited due to the relative small sample size of each subgroup, its cross-sectional design, which only enables associations rather than inferring causality between variables, and the lack of assessment on the influence of psychotropic medications on cognitive measures.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com