The effects of agitation speed, interfacial area, pH value of aqueous phase, initial concentration of HA enantiomers and initial concentration of extractant on the specific rate of extraction were investigated.
The city's aquifer is fast drying up – not surprisingly, given the rate of extraction.
Yet, in the case of commodities, where reserves are limited and the rate of extraction constrained, producers with rights over the available resources call the shots.
Increasing their rate of extraction would thus help promote the country's technological leadership as well as bolster its security.
This is nothing compared to, say, China's annual rate of extraction (3.16bn tonnes in 2010), but coal shaped British life just as profoundly as it is about to change Mongolia's.
"Approval or denial of any one crude oil transport project, including the proposed project, is unlikely to significantly impact the rate of extraction in the oil sands or the continued demand for heavy crude at refineries in the United States," the review said.
It concluded that building the pipeline would not "significantly impact the rate of extraction in the oil sands," and noted that, without Keystone XL, oil from Alberta would be shipped to refineries on the Gulf by rail, which is more carbon intensive, or to foreign markets through new pipelines that Canadian companies are trying to build to their east and west coasts.
High operating costs and harsh conditions will limit the rate of extraction, but Greenland will probably be mining lots of iron, uranium, gold, rare earths, diamonds and rubies before it gets an oil industry.
At current rates of extraction, the oil will last for another 92 years.
Whatever the size of the reserves, actual rates of extraction in each region will depend on economics and politics as well as technology.
However, there are several issues of concern in this sector, including high rates of foreign ownership and control, unwelcome effects on the environment, rapid rates of extraction that may exhaust the reserves, and the widespread but not universal neglect of simple preshipment processing in Australia.
