India is massively an outlier when it comes to open defecation, but as noted in one of the studies Harris cites, large districts with the same rate of open defecation can have rates of stunting that vary as much as 40%.
Along with information campaigns, these rentals have helped cut the rate of open defecation in Ghana by 5% in two years, which in turn will help reduce water-borne diseases.
The national rate of open defecation was 52 per cent in 2010, exceeded across Eastern and Southern African countries only by Somalia (53 per cent).
We also show that gtl-1 and gon-2 interact with the itr-1, flr-1 and kqt-3 genes, which also affect the variation and the rate of the defecation oscillator.
But here is where the statistics Harris so enthusiastically cites come back to bite: in Gujarat, the rate of urban open defecation is only 5percentt, while open defecation is much more common in the rural areas where housing discrimination is a bit of a wash -- everyone struggles for proper housing.
India could also learn valuable lessons from poorer neighbours such as Bangladesh, which has cut rates of open defecation from 19%to3%3% in just two years by decentralising sanitation programmes.
Studies of India's population show strikingly higher rates of open defecation in Hindu-dominated villages compared with Muslim ones, despite lower incomes, education and worse water supplies of Muslims.
There population growth is outstripping the ability of governments to provide services, such that even though rates of open defecation have come down, the number of people practicing is higher now than in 1990.
Rakhine state traditionally has high rates of open defecation compared to other parts of Myanmar.
These systems are the most basic option for low-income countries to decrease rates of open defecation and increase access to improved sanitation.
