While these studies have been integral in bringing attention to the impact of P. downsi on various finch species, the next step is to measure the direct effect of the parasite, while controlling for other variables that may be contributing to nest failure (e.g. ecological variables such as rainfall and food availability, which differ from year to year [25], [26]).
An exception is the project "Where the Rain Falls," a comparative study that systematically explores the interrelationships between rainfall variability, food and livelihood security, and migration at various research sites in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Warner et al. 2012).
The fact that the 1998 2000 rainfall and food supply phenomena discriminated against those having a rural lifestyle, even in the case of villages situated very close to the town, emphasises the urban-rural divide.
Despite recent good rainfalls, high food prices and the lingering impact of the 2007 2009 drought have mitigated recovery.
This could alter storm tracks, rainfall patterns and food production far to the south.
Last year poor rainfall drove up food prices which quickly moved into other sectors as well.
Drought has been officially declared in 34 provinces in Indonesia, while in Vanuatu – still recovering from the devastation of cyclone Pam, which struck in March – authorities are warning reduced rainfall will damage food security, health and livelihoods.
As the Arctic Ocean loses sunlight-reflecting ice and gains sunlight-absorbing open water, energy circulation across the northern half of the planet could also shift, altering jet streams, storm tracks, rainfall patterns and food production much farther south.
"More than 40 million rural and 9 million poor urban people are at risk due to the impacts of El Niño's related drought and erratic rainfall," the World Food Programme has warned.
