Yet it's still unclear what metrics are operating as surrogate race indicators.
In all specifications, we control for the previous year z-score for the same subject of the dependent variable, own race, indicators for parent education level, indicators for free or reduced price lunch for the student, year fixed effects, grade fixed effects, share of peers in the grade eligible for free or reduced price lunch, and number of students in the grade.
In their regressions "educational attainment" is the dependent variable, and explanatory variables include a race indicator variable and a measure of cognitive ability (the AFQT).
We show, in particular, that the traditional approach of including a race indicator variable in a Mincer wage regression provides an economically interpretable estimate if one includes location fixed effects in the regression.
These pre-treatment variables include 'exogenous' covariates (education, age, marital status, household income, immigration status, race indicator, province of residence) as well as 'endogenous' variables (tenure, firm size, job status, occupation categories) that one commonly expects to be correlated with the error term in the wage equation.
However, our primary goal here is to compare results from ordinary regression to the MESE model, so we use a simpler specification; we do not enter the aptitude measure as a quadratic nor do we interact it with the race indicator variable.
Lauren Faust responded to these claims by stating that while Rainbow Dash was a tomboy, "nowhere in the show is her sexual orientation ever referenced" and "assuming [tomboys] are lesbians is extremely unfair to both straight and lesbian tomboys", and further stating that "Color has never, ever been depicted as a race indicator for the ponies".
Among 1 518 702 admissions for childbirth (identified by diagnosis related group codes 370-371 for caesarean delivery and 372-373 for vaginal delivery), we constructed adjusted physician year level caesarean rates by estimating a patient level logistic model of caesarean delivery as a function of mother's age, race, year indicators, and physician indicators.
32 33 All our models included 27 independent variables: the 11 concomitant chronic pulmonary diseases, 5 indicator variables for age, 4 indicator variables for race, 3 indicator variables for health insurance, patient sex and 3 dichotomous (present vs absent) chronic disease variables (one each for ischaemic heart disease, chronic kidney disease and diabetes).
Other factors negatively related with upward mobility are residential race segregation, indicators of bad quality of the school system, and weak family structures measured by the fraction of single parents in the area.
If multiple risk estimates (with error measurements) were presented in a given manuscript (e.g., nested multivariable models), the estimate that most closely adjusted for only demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, race, socioeconomic indicators, and marital status/household composition) was selected.
