The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries witnessed a revolution in punishment: blood sanctions (maiming and execution) began to be replaced by forms of bondage (galley slavery and indentured servitude) and of confinement (short- and long-term imprisonment).
Like external forms of punishment, internal sanctions are instrumentally very important to appropriate action.
Punishment through sanctions and poor reputation motivate individuals to recognize their interdependence with a group, and to avoid free riding.
Direct benefits of cooperation arise when cooperative individuals can expect help in the future via direct or indirect reciprocity, when punishment or sanctions are imposed on non-cooperators or when cooperative individuals gain mating advantages (reviewed by [25], [26], [27]).
Punishment (negative sanction) and reward (positive sanction) regulate conduct in conformity with social norms (see norm).
"There is no logic of punishment or sanction but the application of the law," the diplomat said.
This seems sensible, as long as lawmakers understand that both incentives (federal money) and punishments (federal sanctions) are necessary to move school systems forward.
Further confusing the issue is that fact that neither McGwire nor Palmeiro — nor any other confirmed steroid user, for that matter — has been given an official post-retirement punishment or sanction.
