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This could be explained by a combination of programmed effects of prenatal exposure to maternal obesity, together with exposure to a more obesogenic postnatal environment.
Both fetal neural and placental 11β-HSD2 appear to be a central hub for eliciting the programmed effects on neuropsychiatry, although the relative significance of fetal brain vs. placental 11β-HSD2 is yet to be established.
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The effects of prenatal interventions on postnatal growth suggest programming effects in early fetal life.
Furthermore, administration of dexamethasone or carbenoxolone reduces birth weight and exerts programming effects in rats [21,35,150,198,200,255,298,299,306,307].
Genetic effects, programming effects in utero and differentiation effects after birth may account for these prenatal and postnatal associations [ 10].
The effects of these prenatal nutrition interventions on postnatal growth suggest programming effects in early fetal life.
Recent work also suggests that the microbiota has acute as well as programming effects on the brain and behavior.
This study could not detect a "programming" effect of early nutrition supplementation on adult LBM and muscle strength.
Some analysts were skeptical of the programs' effects.
Inferring Program Effects for Specialized Populations: Does Special Education Raise Achievement for Students with Disabilities.
Do such program effects on parents translate into gains in children's school readiness?
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