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We identify proficiency profiles across the countries.
The developmental trend is similarly demonstrated in several select individual proficiency profiles in Figure 3.
Figure 1 shows the proportions of students in each of the multidimensional proficiency profiles.
(5) Are there substantial differences in the multidimensional proficiency profiles across countries?
For deriving the multidimensional proficiency profiles of the fourth grade students, latent profile analyses were conducted (Lazarsfeld and Henry 1968).
Finally, the interdependent relationship between the well-established benchmarks and the newly developed proficiency profiles could be further studied.
Our third research question aims at describing the relationship between student traits and the European multi-competence proficiency profiles.
We then fit this international European model with constraints to all 17 countries separately to compare the multidimensional proficiency profiles between countries.
Our fourth research question aims at a European comparison of proportions of high and low achieving students in each of the multidimensional proficiency profiles.
In terms of cultural and socioeconomic characteristics, all seven proficiency profiles were distinguishable, and a close relationship between achievement and socioeconomic background was observed.
These studies show that the investigation of proficiency profiles enhances the knowledge of differences between countries and therefor provide valuable knowledge for the comparisons of education systems.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com