Humans alter the water cycle for food production, manufacturing, energy production, provision of potable water and recreation.
The difference in the magnitude and pattern of cropland expansion across the two scenarios engenders different tradeoffs among crop production, provision of species habitat, and other important ecosystem services such as biomass carbon storage.
Given women's crucial role in production, provision and processing of food, any set of strategies for sustainable food security must address their limited access to productive resources.
Ecosystem services are diverse and include supporting services or functions (e.g., primary production, nutrient cycling), provisioning services (e.g., wildlife, groundwater), regulating services (e.g., water purification, floodwater retention), and even cultural services (e.g., ecotourism, cultural heritage).
The ES examined are food production (a provisioning ES), climate mitigation (a regulation ES), landscape esthetics (as the basis for many cultural ES), and biodiversity.
The classic asymmetry is the case where females invest more in offspring production and provisioning, a resource males have to compete for.
Similar endocrine integration of sensory responses, feeding behavior, and female reproductive traits are present in many taxa [31] [34], and may be central in biasing the female foraging choice toward essential nutrients, such as protein, in times of egg production and provisioning of young (reviewed by [34]).
When viewed from the male hemiclone perspective, only 1 genotype out of 12 exhibited a significant negative trade-off, suggesting that males were able to influence females similarly in egg production and provisioning, possibly due to experimental design (lack of male-male competition, no-choice assay).
Soil functions can be classified as supporting (nutrient cycling) and provisioning (crop production) ecosystem services (ES).
Table 3 Perceived trade-offs and synergies between energy wood production and use and other ES Finland Germany Norway Slovenia Spain Trade-offs and synergies relating to provisioning ES Roundwood production +/− +/− +/− +/− +/0 Competition between material and energy use +/− +/− +/0 − +/− Cascade usea 0 +/− n.a.a
