In this Personal View, we trace the potential neurobiological origins of these impairments down to three candidate domains namely, social perception and emotion processing, motivation and reward value processing, and social decision making.
On the other hand, the simulation could be perceived as a less formal and more practical testing format, compared to the traditional educational testing format of written instructions, and thus may have also a positive effect on processing motivation (Garris et al. 2002).
Activity mapping with c-Fos is a well-established and often used method to identify brain regions that are involved in processing motivation behaviour, social behaviour, learning and memory, and so on (Zhang and Kelley, 2000; Tronel and Sara, 2002; Frankland et al., 2004; Veening et al., 2005; Makino et al., 2015).
Interestingly, similar hyper-arousal indices have surfaced in experimental studies that interfered with functioning of the caudate nucleus, a subcortical structure implicated in a range of functions including reward processing, sensory processing, motivation, learning and memory, and the regulation of cortical excitability.
It is implicated in a wide variety of cognitive operations including response inhibition, reward processing, behavioral motivation, target detection, and decision making [49].
It was found from the analysis of the 444 articles that "Instructional Approaches," "Learning Environment," and "Metacognition" were the three most popular research topics, but the analysis of the citation counts suggested that the studies related to "Instructional Approaches," "Information Processing" and "Motivation" might have a greater impact on subsequent research.
Similar to our previous report [6], overfeeding results in diminished activation in cortical regions associated with visual processing and motivation, suggesting that the salience of the food cues is reduced after overfeeding in thin individuals.
Given that memory processing and motivation systems are highly intertwined (Phillips et al., 2008; Wise, 2004), further investigations are required to uncover the exact neural mechanisms by which testicular hormones influence adolescent NOR performance.
The symptomatology of the clinical syndrome shared by MDD and BD, namely the major depressive episode, implicates brain systems involved in the regulation of mood and emotional expression, reward processing, attention, motivation, stress responses, social cognition and neurovegetative function (e.g., sleep, appetite, energy, libido).
Furthermore, the reduction in likelihood of responses seen in the shaken bees did not reflect a general effect of stress on olfactory sensory processing or motivation to respond because shaken bees' responses to the CS+ were unaffected (least-squares contrast, χ1 = 0.14, p = 0.706).
This study demonstrates that viewing gambling pictures (as opposed to neutral pictures) is related to greater brain activation in visual processing, emotion-motivation and attentional-control brain circuitry in treatment-seeking PRG, compared with HC and HSM, and that this activation is positively related to gambling urges.
