Of 21 insect projects, 81% (17) provided benefits to protection of biodiversity, while 48% (10) protected products harvested from natural systems, and 5% (1) preserved ecosystem services, with many projects contributing to more than one goal.
In contrast, of the 49 projects against invasive plants, 98% (48) provided benefits to protection of biodiversity, while 47% (23) protected products, and 25% (12) preserved ecosystem services, again with many projects contributing to several goals.
Adaptation will require exploring genetic varieties of crops that can withstand new climate extremes, creating conservation corridors to facilitate species' migration, and providing incentives to preserve ecosystem services.
Paulo Moutinho, a senior climate researcher at the Amazon Environmental Research Institute in Brasilia, says 2030 is "too late" to stop deforestation, and that the current level of 5000 square kilometers being cleared per year is still too high to preserve ecosystem services.
Goals are commonly expressed in terms of maintaining ecosystem integrity, achieving restoration, preserving ecosystem services, and protecting wildlife and other ecosystem characteristics (CCSP 2008).
Payments to preserve ecosystem services date to at least the early 1980s, when the United States implemented wetland and stream credit banking, but the idea really took off in the mid 1990s.
At the same time, grassland production faces competition from requirements for arable land, competition between food and feed production, requirements for bioenergy and the need to preserve biodiversity and maintain ecosystem services (Thornton, 2010).
In this way, ecosystem resilience may be maintained at a level sufficient to preserve ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services in the event of unexpected large-scale environmental disturbances.
Simultaneous consideration of ecological and technological processes could be a systematic approach to cleaner crop production systems that preserve ecosystem states and services.
When well-managed, parks help wildlife to persist at ecologically functional densities, not only saving iconic species but preserving ecosystem function and services.
Consequently, there is considerable interest in developing adaptive forest management strategies to preserve ecosystem productivity and services in the face of climate change (Spittlehouse and Stewart 2003; Broadmeadow et al. 2005; Aitken et al. 2008; Bower and Aitken 2008; Bolte et al. 2009).
