Although orchids may present high dispersal ability, conferred by the morphology of their seeds (species with wind-dispersed seeds; Ackerman 2007), in plants, seeds dispersion contributes to both the colonization of new populations and for connectivity established between populations, while pollen contributes to the connectivity.
If F. ceranoides managed to expand its range more than 15 degrees in latitude since the Last Glacial Maximum [LGM, ~20.000 ka before present (BP ], dispersal restrictions cannot account, at least as the sole factor, for the apparent lack of population connectivity along the much narrower NW Iberian coastline.
The systems of coupled partial differential equations presented combine dispersal, growth, competition and genetic interactions.
Anachronisms are different from present-day dispersal systems that work on exapted traits [6], [44].
They are outliers because of functional lack of fit to characteristic present-day dispersal syndromes (suites of fruit traits associated with major dispersal by a particular group of vertebrate frugivores in the community).
However, only a few studies have employed biophysical models to test whether genetic differentiation correlates to present-day dispersal probabilities in marine fish (but see Christie et al. 2010; Selkoe et al. 2010; Schunter et al. 2011).
As our transects exemplify, species boundaries are delineated by specific geographic features likely to constrain present-day dispersal (Fig. 2): the urban area of Nìs in SE-Serbia, and dry pre-Rhodopean hills in NE-Greece, where suitable breeding sites appear scattered and disconnected (CD and AB pers. obs).
According to the present elasticity analysis, dispersal had only a very small effect on population growth rates (Fig. 3B).
For example, while disease transmission on transportation networks is often asymmetric, airborne infection can be thought of as symmetric without loss of generality (although asymmetry can be present for airborne dispersal depending on the prevailing wind direction and speed).
