Being able to film them at all is rare – so the chance to perhaps see new predation behaviour was so exciting.
The incidence of this predation behaviour has however not been quantified for the Baltic and therefore is not included in our simulations.
Normal predation behaviour may become modified with the installation of a dam, and although few data exist to date, it appears that migrating species suffer increased predation in the vicinity of an installation, whether by other fish or birds.
However, time constraints, such as those experienced during escape and predation behaviours, may prevent animals from achieving maximal force capacity from their muscles during spring-loading.
Results of the twining vine study supported the predictions from the SDP model for optimal anti-predation behaviour under energy stress.
This pattern supports predictions of animal-derived theory based on an optimality approach to anti-predation behaviour using stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) models (Lima 1998; Hutchinson and McNamara 2000).
Thus, in climbing vines (i.e. low predation risk) anti-predator behaviour was reduced and vine foraging was increased in the shade, while in prostrate vines (i.e. high predation risk) both anti-predator behaviour and vine foraging were greater in the shade (Gianoli et al. 2007) (Fig. 1).
Given the likely high rate of natural mortality inflicted by N. cepedianus on M. antarcticus in Norfolk Bay [21], movement into the water column at night could also be anti-predator behaviour, as fine-scale movement may mitigate predation risk [53] [56].
Recent studies of anurans and other taxa likewise illustrate complex interactions among predation risk, behaviour, metabolism, and enzyme physiology [13], [15], [19], [20, this study].
In accordance with Lind and Cresswell [5], our methodological approach indicates that it seems necessary to take into account the individual's time-budget when studying the impact of predation on behaviour in order to encompass potential compensations.
Several species appear capable of modifying their colour in response to various environmental cues such as temperature, predation threats, behaviour stimulus (e.g., crab spiders which try to blend with their background to ambush prey, [ 6]), among others [ 19].
