The N e of the refugial population was constrained to a size proportional to the relative N e of the population sampled from the sites of the putative refugia.
Investigation of DU teratogenicity in exposed populations is constrained by the rigor with which such populations can be accurately identified [ 36].
At the turn of the century, the need for more medical doctors (MDs) in the Netherlands was predicted because an aging medical workforce and an aging population were constraining access [ 1].
Large populations are constrained to near deterministic fixation of rare large-benefit mutations.
As these patterns appear to be global insensitive to regional history, topography, climate, and socioeconomic factors it is likely that human populations are constrained by some fundamental laws related to the flow and distribution of resources within and among cities.
In all cases, the spread of individuals in the optimal populations was constrained to the Pareto front.
We found that most populations experience sub-optimal conditions in at least one environmental dimension and most populations are constrained by minimum temperature during the flowering/fruiting stage.
Currently, the lower limits of O. princeps populations are constrained by an inability to tolerate thermal stress, while their high elevation distribution is enabled by adaptation to hypoxic environments [ 10].
For example, if τ contains a single divergence-time parameter τ1, all Y pairs of populations are constrained to diverge at this time (i.e., t would contain the index 1 repeated Y times, and T would contain the value τ1 repeated Y times), whereas if it contains Y divergence-time parameters, the model is fully generalized to allow all of the pairs to diverge at unique times.
In the secondary phase, further population expansion is constrained by biotic and abiotic factors and evolutionary changes might be necessary before further spread into stressful habitats is possible.
