Previous genetic indications of a population expansion starting between 37 000 and 270 000 YBP agree with fossil record indications of a late Pleistocene origin and expansion of buffalo (Van Hooft et al. 2002) The buffalo skyline was drawn under the same model and using a dataset comparable to the domesticated animals.
In our first run we tested this hypothesis by drawing prior conditions from a wide uniform distribution where the onset of population expansion, t b, was between 0 and 100,000 years ago.
Demographic expansions are supported by the neutrality and mismatch distribution tests that reveal signatures of demographic and spatial expansions in almost all phylogroups and by the BSP analysis, which show a trend of population expansion in all phylogroups between 0.1 to 0.15 million years ago.
The differences in the timing of population expansions seen between M. septentrionalis and other apotheciate species may be related to ecology as the treeline migrated north [ 91].
When using τ = 3.859 and the 11% per million years mutation rate for the mtDNA control region [ 33], the time of population expansion is estimated to be between 15 000 (3 year generation time) and 45 000 (1 year generation time) years ago, or between 45 800 and 138 000 years ago when estimated with a more conserved mutation rate of 3.6% per million years [ 32].
About the emerging of haplogroup M90 (34,400 years) in the Pleistocene and the additional three undated new basal M-lineages we can only speculate that the proposed population expansion in South and Southeast Asia between 45,000 and 20,000 years before present [ 24] resulted in new haplogroups.
Because the allele frequency distribution does not allow discrimination between sweeps and population expansion (Przeworski 2002), we apply θ = 4 N eμ, recognizing that we may underestimate the recent effective size if the population is expanding.
Terra Preta is found near large, well-established Amazon Indian villages, suggesting the causal relationship between agricultural stability and population expansion [6].
"Our world is getting more vulnerable to big epidemics, because of population expansion, huge mobility and more intense contact between animals and people.
