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Experimental studies by Gordon (2007) implicated particulate mass and the physicochemical properties of air pollutants as determinants of the health effects of air pollution inhalation.
However, the patho-physiological changes linking air pollution inhalation to cardiovascular events have not been fully elucidated.
However, measuring oxygen uptake during commuting is difficult and would influence air pollution inhalation, therefore this method was not feasible in this study.
In a recent Dutch study, Johan de Hartog et al. (2010) concluded that shifting from short car trips to bicycle trips would reduce all-cause mortality, with estimated reductions in mortality due to increased physical activity that were nine times greater than estimated increases in mortality due to increased pollution inhalation and traffic-related fatality estimates in the Netherlands.
Investigations in rats (Bouthillier et al. 1998; Vincent et al. 2001) demonstrated an association between urban air pollution inhalation and increased circulating levels of ET-1, between diesel soot (but not carbon black) and plasma ET-3 (Vincent et al. 2001), and between on-road particles and ET-2 (Elder et al. 2004).
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Impact assessment methods have been applied to estimate aggregate chronic health impacts for outdoor air pollution [ Muller and Mendelsohn 2007; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPAA) 1999] and from pollutant inhalation in office buildings (Fisk et al. 2011).
Only a few studies have assessed the occurrence of cancer in animals exposed directly to outdoor air pollution by inhalation, and none of them were conducted in China.
Because much of the information currently known about nano-sized particles comes from air pollution and inhalation toxicology, the section on air pollution is more robust than other chapters in terms of nano-implications.
However, under certain conditions or periods of exposure such as physiological stress, air pollution, smoking, chemical inhalation, or exposure to UV light, the increased production of these free radicals can be detrimental.
The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games provided a unique case study to investigate the effect of source control measures on the reduction in air pollution, and associated inhalation cancer risk, in a Chinese megacity.
Older persons, women (Künzli et al. 2005; Miller et al. 2007), and people with diabetes (O'Neill et al. 2005) and hypertension may be more vulnerable to the effects of air pollution; and direct inhalation of PM from cigarettes may overwhelm any effects because of ambient particle exposure.
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