Nox4 expression occurs in a plethora of cell types, including pancreatic, vascular smooth muscle (VSMC) and myeloid cell lines.
The plethora of cell types, molecular interactions and soluble factors that are involved in the immune response is not only responsible for an organisms defense against infections but also, they play an important role in self-maintenance and antitumor responses [ 1].
Neural crest cells (NCCs) delaminate from the dorsal neural tube and migrate along distinct pathways to their final destinations, where they differentiate into a plethora of cell types including melanocytes, cranial cartilage/bone, vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and peripheral neurons.
Carbohydrates are ubiquitious structures on the surface of a plethora of different cell types including potentially pathogenic and beneficial gut bacteria.
MSC reside in a complex three-dimensional network, which comprises a plethora of other cell types such as, in the case of bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells (HSC), adipocytes, and endothelial cells, altogether embedded in distinct extracellular matrix, and within this blend, MSC guide differentiation of hematopoietic precursor cells into mature progeny [ 1 ].
The growth factors that signal via gp130, IL-6, IL-11, LIF (leukemia inhibitory factor), CNTF (ciliary neurotrophic factor), OSM (oncostatin M), CT-1 (cardiotrophin-1), CLC (cardiotrophin-like cytokine) and IL-27, affect a plethora of different cell types [31], [32], and it has been shown that direct activation of gp130 does not require the specific ligand for cell type-specific signalling [58].
The majority of secreted angiogenic signaling molecules are expressed not only by endothelial cells but also by a plethora of other cell types, such as macrophages, fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells and epithelial cells [ 5].
Our studies show that blocking TSLP and NKG2D can normalize the exaggerated atopic response of keratinocytes and multiple leukocyte types in TPA treated EPI-/ skin, indicating that these targeting strategies affect a plethora of different cell types.
Besides BMSC and HSC, a plethora of other cell types is commonly designated as stem cells, although evidence for clonal in vivo organ formation without pre-induction is missing.
KSHV has an expansive cellular tropism both in vivo and in vitro, and can infect a plethora of different cell types [ 4] presumably due to its ability to bind ubiquitous molecules expressed on target cells such as heparan sulfate (HS) [ 5].
In studies of neural development in mice, Stahl found that TRNP1 produces a protein that determines whether neural stem cells self-replicate, leading to a balloonlike expansion of cortical surface area, or whether they differentiate into a plethora of intermediate stem cell types and neurons, thickening the cortex and forming more complex brain structures.
