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Actually, the present paper was originally part of the paper "Elastic, not plastic species: Frozen plasticity theory and the origin of adaptive evolution in sexually reproducing organisms" Biol.
This can be accomplished either directly by changing the timing, frequency and intensity of grazing animals or indirectly by increasing resource availability if the dominant IAP is a plastic species capable of increasing in palatability (Firn et al. 2012).
For example, a highly plastic species, such as Eragrostis curvula (Firn et al. 2012), can increase in palatability when a small quantity of fertiliser is applied in a good rainfall year.
It is a phenotypically plastic species both for morphology and life-history traits [33] [35], and may not have to rely on genetic polymorphisms for enzymes to survive and reproduce successfully in different environments.
Moreover, plastic species can outcompete non-plastic species in the coevolutionary arms-race.
Non-plastic species are best adapted to the conditions existing at the time of their origin (past conditions), while plastic species can adapt to current conditions.
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Under the fluctuating conditions of a stochastic environment, plastic asexual species could adapt to transient environmental change while non-plastic species resist such a change of their phenotypes.
During the introduction and lag phase, the genetic polymorphism of an introduced population decreases, which could result in the conversion of a non-plastic species to the plastic state [ 16].
Under this latter scenario, the microhabitat experienced by an individual throughout development may be more important in determining skull variation in ecological-plastic species than macro-environmental conditions (i.e., the differences in habitat that is captured by the coarse-grained variables used here).
It appears that for spatial patterns that are not too irregular, and for sufficiently plastic tree species, there is little to be gained by including spatial structure in growth and yield forecasting models.
Experiments were performed in a liquid-fluidized bed apparatus that was designed to operate in both upflow and downflow modes, for "heavier-than-water" and "lighter-than-water" plastic particle species, respectively.
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