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In early tunnels, timber was used for the initial or temporary support, followed by a permanent lining of brick or stone masonry.
A modern Greathead shield illustrates his original developments: miners working under a hood in individual small pockets that can be quickly closed against inflow; shield propelled forward by jacks; permanent lining segments erected under protection of the shield tail; and the whole tunnel pressurized to resist water inflow.
In one of the first visits by journalists to the scene of the disaster, a small group of reporters watched Saturday as, a few feet away, a team of roughnecks and others prepared a tool that would be used to lower several thousand feet of steel casing to the bottom of the hole, where it would form part of the well's permanent lining.
The final permanent lining was installed in free air.
In the second half of the 19th century, first attempts were undertaken to calculate the loading on the timberwork and the permanent lining.
Similar(54)
Among the proposals were tax cuts, a permanent line-item veto, and a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget.
Admittedly the permanent line-up of dancers won't be assembled until 2009, and there are slightly unreal levels of glitterdust scattered over Wheeldon's small, borrowed cast.
The two sides did agree to open a permanent line of dialogue on defense issues and to set up a team to continue discussing weapons sales.
All the while, however, the Leeps were hunting for a permanent line of business, something to sustain their 20-year-old family firm.
Nasa's fond farewell to the aged shuttle fleet draws a permanent line under 30 years of missions that defined modern space flight, but the US space agency cannot afford to dwell on its past achievements.
And proof that travelers remain conscious of what they eat is as obvious as the permanent lines that are found at the food courts in some of the busiest and most recently remodeled airports, like those of Pittsburgh and Dallas.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com