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A 1996 study of Canadian female surgeons sums up the situation quite well when it suggests that although most female surgeons did not feel actively discriminated against, the perception of discrimination during surgical training was present [ 11].
Perception of discrimination was examined using the question 'Do you think that John/Mary would be discriminated against by others in the community, if they knew about the problems he/she has had?' The possible responses to this question were 'yes', 'no' and 'I don't know'.
She also said a quota was undesirable because it could create the perception of discrimination.
Based on their perception of discrimination, more than four out of five respondents said that affirmative action was still needed in jobs and schools.
Even if one denies that these self-reported instances constituted actual discrimination, it is this perception of discrimination, in and of itself, that is linked to poor health.
But broader studies show that the perception of discrimination is often accompanied by a very real difference in the allotment of resources.
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We explore whether perceptions of discrimination are related to ordinary statistical measures.
"Perceptions of discrimination are evidence of nothing but subjective feelings," Kleinfeld scoffs.
Children's own race/ethnicity and ethnic attitudes also affected their perceptions of discrimination.
Perceptions of discrimination like those the officers experienced, as well as those that are less direct, may make us sick.
Perceptions of discrimination were associated with higher performance state self-esteem and, among egalitarian children, lower social state self-esteem.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com