In summary, we have functionally the tested the ability of Ras and Wnt pathway to cooperate to drive bladder carcinogenesis and find that they robustly cooperate to promote non-metastatic bladder tumours.
Though the JNK and NF-κB signaling pathways appear to cooperate in the control of Drosophila immune responses [19], the precise role of JNK pathway and downstream targets in host immune responses remains unclear.
In this cellular background, the HER-2 and TGF-β pathways appear to cooperate to promote an especially aggressive phenotype.
Such a senescence barrier has been previously described in SVts8 fibroblast cells where the p16INK4a/Rb pathway appears to cooperate with mitogenic signals to enforce an irreversible block of cytokinesis through the production of reactive oxygen species.
As in the flavonoid branch pathway [ 31], the MYB factors controlling the monolignol pathway are likely to cooperate within multiprotein complexes with other protein partners that remain to be characterised.
The AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (AKT/mTOR) and ERK MAPK signaling pathways have been shown to cooperate in prostate cancer progression and the transition to androgen-independent disease.
SMAD7, one of the inhibitory SMADs of the BMP/TGF β signalling pathway, has been shown to cooperate with oncogenic Ras to escape growth arrest (Liu et al, 2003).
There is evidence that this is caused by paradoxical activation of the MAPK pathway, which is proposed to cooperate with pre-existing somatic UV-induced mutations in key oncogenes and tumour suppressors such as H-RAS and TP53 (Hatzivassiliou et al, 2010; Heidorn et al, 2010; Poulikakos et al, 2010; Arnault et al, 2012).
Previously, Notch1 was shown to cooperate with the Snail pathway by upregulating Snail transcription, inducing EMT and promoting hypoxia-induced tumor cell invasion [ 19].
As a result, pathways would cooperate to integrate signals, and to make decisions about the responses in a decentralized manner, thus conferring robustness to the system [ 72, 73].
