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The actual number of HFRS cases might be even higher for these periods because the reporting system was suboptimal and knowledge of pathogen source, transmission routes, and diagnostics was poor.
Improving general awareness and knowledge of pathogen source, transmission routes (how to avoid contact with a pathogen), diagnostics, vaccination, and general hygiene is one of the most effective and economic ways to prevent infectious diseases.
To the Editor: Brucellosis is a known cause of small household outbreaks (1, 2 ), usually attributed to exposure of all infected family members to the animal/animal product pathogen source.
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Figure 2 Challenges in identifying enteric pathogen sources (source: Malakoff,[2002]).
The authors suggested that host-origin libraries, based on a phenotypic method, are useful for tracking the pathogen sources.
The worldwide prevalence of pathogen contamination is a serious concern, and enhancing the understanding of major pathogen sources and their significant impacts on water resources is crucial.
A watershed, for example, can have many pathogen sources, such as agricultural land, riparian areas, agricultural feeding operations, livestock, wildlife, and humans.
Numerical analysis of the role of shipping in spreading pathogens is usually not possible because of heavy ship traffic and the multitude of pathogen sources.
In general, higher case numbers are expected in areas surrounding pathogen sources, and lower ones, in areas far away from these sources.
Identification of the relative contributions of pathogen sources and transmission routes is necessary to support evidence-based disease control programs (2 ).
As a result of uncertainties in the ability of indicator microbes to track human health effects in areas impacted by non-point sources, models should focus on simulating pathogen sources specifically, which are considered to be a better indicator of human health effects.
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