Secondary outcomes were parent-report assessments of parental depression, parenting stress, and social support.
The parental model included parental depression and parenting behavior and baseline model.
Finally, parental depression and parenting behaviors were associated with child health, and part of the effect of parental depression on health was explained by its association with parenting behaviors.
In Step 3 (parental model) parental depression and parenting behaviors were added to the baseline model (minus the hardship measures).
Medical need and food insufficiency had negative effects on child health, and indirect effects on health through their association with parental depression and parenting behaviors.
Finally, research in the parental psychological resource domain suggests that parental depression and parenting behaviors have implications for child health [46], [47], [48].
The finding of a correlation between parental depression and parenting behaviors is consonant with previous research that has found parental depression adversely affects the quality of parenting behaviors [3], [7], [9], [51], and has implications for child health [47], [48], [54].
The following two sections present evidence for parenting programmes reducing parental depression.
This stands in contrast to several studies focusing on parental depression and parenting [ 39].
In Step 3 (parental model), parental depression and positive parenting behaviors were added to the baseline model (minus the hardship measures).
The parental psychological line of research does not explicitly examine and explain how income poverty and material hardship may be associated with parental depression affect and parenting behaviors.
