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The debate sought constraints on statistical practice that would avoid conundrums arising from actual and possible paradoxical data.
Section 4 discusses the roles and implications of paradoxical data for theories of causal inference and for analyses of causal relations in terms of probabilities.
A particularly important case where Simpson's Paradox has been invalidly employed is discussed in Section 3. It has been mooted that paradoxical data provide counter-examples to the Sure Thing Principle in theories of rational choice.
While the conclusions of this section are largely negative, Section 5 illustrates how apparently paradoxical data can support causal models for the evolution of traits that at first appear to be incompatible with a setting in which natural selection disadvantages individuals that exhibit the traits.
There are little and paradoxical data, so more clinical trials are needed to explore the issue.
These paradoxical data indicate that an increase in the delivery of physically dissolved O2 in the tumor tissue by hyperbaric hyperoxic treatment may suppress its growth.
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To integrate these separate and apparently paradoxical pieces of data, we took advantage of the extensive analysis of human genome sequence organization that has identified large paralogous chromosomal regions within the human genome itself.
The median time to IRIS diagnosis after ART initiation and the median change in CD4+ T cells and HIV RNA levels at the time of IRIS were similar between those subjects who developed paradoxical and unmasking IRIS (data not shown).
41 Although some of the data are paradoxical, there is a clear link between rs10936599 and longer telomeres in leucocytes and increased risk of CRC.
Epidemiological data showing paradoxical inverse association of lipid levels with cardiovascular disease risk in rheumatoid arthritis patients have been reviewed [ 29].
There are a number of indirect methods of counting GPs used by DOHA from an analysis of Medicare data producing paradoxical results [ 5, 6].
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