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White is living its brick-and-mortar loss, staving off more loss, exhaustion, aggrieved exposure, a pale heart even as in daylight white hardens its features.
Here, we report that cardiac Mb deficit, associated with pale heart colour, has evolved repeatedly during teleost evolution.
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The pale hearts observed are unlikely to have high compensatory levels of other globin proteins, as posited for amphibians [ 2], as this would produce red pigmentation.
Pale hearts were present both in species that respire primarily through the gills and via accessory air-breathing organs (figure 1).
Pale hearts have arisen in Osteoglossiformes and on independent occasions in Acanthopterygii, being present in temperate and tropical species from fresh and saltwater (figure 1).
There was extensive variation in cardiac Mb mRNA levels across teleost species (table 1; F = 84.1, p < 0.0001: one-way ANOVA) with red hearts having higher levels than pale hearts.
First, all identified tropical and temperate species with pale hearts have relatively small adult body size (figure 1), suggesting that some aspect of allometry may affect constraints on Mb-assisted oxygen-transport into hearts.
All species tested to date from Gasterosteidae, Pholidae, Anarhichadidae, Cyclopteridae and Zoarcidae have pale hearts (this work, [ 6]) and are more closely related to one another than to the next red-hearted species [ 9] (Perca fluviatilis in figure 1).
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