It has previously been suggested that psychological factors, such as inadequate pain cognitions and pain behaviour are likely to predict a poor outcome of painful musculoskeletal conditions [ 2].
A study on praire voles, which are monogamous and mate for life, found that they will console one another by grooming when one individual is observed suffering from painful distress – a behaviour previously thought to be unique to a small number of highly intelligent species such as chimpanzees.
Painful events shape future behaviour in two ways: stimuli associated with pain onset subsequently support learned avoidance (i.e. punishment-learning) because they signal future, upcoming pain.
Evidence shows that there is a higher risk of negative behaviours such as substance abuse and destructive behaviour when painful feelings are unable to be expressed or are not supported (Walsh 2007).
The corresponding syndrome, CIPA, consists of characteristic features: recurrent episodic fevers due to anhidrosis, absence of reaction to painful stimuli, self-mutilating behaviour and mental retardation (Axelrod and Gold-von Simson, 2007).
However, according to the fear-avoidance theory of pain, one reaction to an expected painful stimulus may be avoidance behaviour [ 47].
Few studies have explored the effects of combining nonpharmacological interventions, i.e. non-nutritive sucking, oral sucrose, and facilitated tucking, on infants' behaviours across painful procedures.
In the electrical therapy, the patient is given a lightly painful shock whenever the undesirable behaviour is displayed.
In the electrical therapy, the patient is given a lightly painful shock whenever the undesirable behaviour is aroused; this method has been used in the treatment of sexual deviations.
Not just avoidance behaviour, but also painful task persistence might be a risk factor for development and maintenance of pain complaints.
