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Cram et al. (2009) indicated that choice-based sampling is particularly useful when the outcome to be explained is rare.
Method 2 is similar to the one proposed by Lu et al. in case-cohort studies [ 22] where the membership in the exposed and unexposed groups is the outcome to be explained, whereas in our work it is an explanatory variable.
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Here, proto-institutions represent binding formal and/or informal practices and rules of governance within agencies and/or political institutions, as well policy innovations, as outcomes to be explained.
Maternal mortality was considered as the dependant outcome variable to be explained by independent predictors.
(Rawls 1971: 7) Indirect discrimination is structural when the rules and norms of society consistently produce disproportionately disadvantageous outcomes for the members of a certain group, relative to the other groups in society, the outcomes are unjust to the members of the disadvantaged group, and the production of the outcomes is to be explained by the group membership of those individuals.
Interestingly, the ability of ScysC to predict cardiovascular outcome is thought to be explained not only by the ability of ScysC to detect renal function impairment (which is by itself a strong cardiovascular risk factor) but also by its possible connection to others factors that are directly related to cardiovascular diseases [ 11].
Why the same strain of virus, administered by the same route to the same species of mouse, would result in dramatically different outcomes has yet to be explained but the results may suggest that the age/maturity of the mouse may be a factor contributing to the outcome (persistence versus clearance versus disease) following hantavirus infection.
After establishing the basic facts on outcomes that need to be explained, we divide the students into quartiles based on their high school FCAT scores and explore differences between these quartiles – which likely reflect their differences in early achievement – versus those differences within quartiles, which cannot be attributed to achievement gaps10.
The final point suggests that association of genetic risk scores with prostate cancer outcomes is unlikely to be explained by confounders.
Rather than possible insufficiency of a once-daily dose of insulin detemir, these discrepant outcomes are likely to be explained by diversity in study design, such as different titration targets and titration frequency.
That is to say, anything that is not a random outcome of evolution is to be explained by natural selection.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com