Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents.
Such models have been built for a few organisms, often using existing constraint-based models as a basis (Antoniewicz et al., 2007b; Suthers et al., 2007).
In molecular biology this has led to the recent emergence of current systems biology [ 29], which aims at integrating data about molecular processes inside organisms, often using approaches inspired by engineering [ 212, 213].
Digital organisms often use the result of one computation as an input (or partial result) for another computation; this re-use helps explain the genetic overlap among different functions and the tendency for the performance of one function to be correlated with that of another (see also [ 19] and [ 22]).
Pyropia yezoensis is a model organism often used to investigate the mechanisms underlying stress tolerance in intertidal zones.
Escherichia coli is an easily cultured organism often used for recombinant protein production; however, the quantity obtained of a soluble, folded, and functional protein-of-interest is often undesirably low, because many proteins-of-interest aggregate to form inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm when overexpressed.
While the argument in favor of Alr is largely based on the well-defined mechanism of irreversible inhibition by DCS, mounting evidence suggests it is not the primary target in Mycobacterium smegmatis, a fast-growing organism often used as a surrogate of M. tuberculosis.
Nature and organism often use the biomineralization technique to build up various highly regular structures such as bone, teeth, kidney stone etc., and recently this becomes the strategy to design and synthesis of novel biocomposite materials.
Because of the great diversity of pathogenic microorganisms transmitted by contaminated water and the difficulty and cost of directly measuring all microbial pathogens in environmental samples, organisms that may indicate the presence of sewage and fecal contamination (indicator organisms) are often used for monitoring and regulation of recreational and drinking waters.
Indeed, cell lines from various model organisms are often used to draw conclusions about human cells.
