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Because organisms, groups, and even genomes do not actually survive the evolution-by-selection process, the answer to the survival question must be the replicator.
The debate concerns whether genes are always the "units" or "targets" of selection, or whether selection can occur on higher levels, like organisms, groups, and species.
Philosophical discussions of various biological individuals, including organisms, groups of organisms, and parts of organisms (such as genes), have flourished in the past twenty years.
Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation, such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species.
Importantly, this estimate contains several yet unpublished sources for several both relatively poorly and well-studied organisms groups (for instance, parasites of vertebrates and macrozoobenthos, respectively).
The "individuals" in the local population may be alleles, haplotypes, organisms, groups, or any other biological unit to which we can assign a phenotype and identify descendants.
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We compared 250 virtual organisms with a Non-Hebbian pre-synaptic LTP synapse (group B) to 250 randomly chosen virtual organisms (group A).
Flv proteins from oxygenic photosynthetic organisms group into two nearly symmetrical clusters (named here as Cluster FlvA and Cluster FlvB), one partner of the pair from each cluster.
Most LytR-CpsA-Psr proteins of the high GC Gram-positive organisms grouped in cluster A1.
# loci RNAs conserved in N other organisms, grouped by number of loci conserved in at least 1, 5, or 15 other organisms.
IntAct, DIP, MINT and BIND contribute a significant number interactions in various additional organisms grouped under the category 'other' in Figure 2.
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