As some of his colleagues have suggested, constructional morphology as an engineering approach to the study of organisms (i. e., engineering morphology) may replace the traditional concepts of morphology and anatomy and provides the observational base for the historical reconstruction of evolutionary pathways.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms; i.e., their cells contain membrane-bound organelles and clearly defined nuclei.
Immunology, the scientific study of the body's resistance to invasion by other organisms (i.e., immunity).
Quantitative determination of modification of primary sediment features, by the activity of organisms (i.e., bioturbation) is essential in geosciences.
Topics include growth, resource acquisition, interactions with other organisms (i.e., fungi, bacteria, insects), reproduction, and survival in extreme environments.
The method is adaptable to all organisms (i.e., plants, animals, fungi, bacteria) and all genetic markers (i.e., COI, ITS, rbcL, 16S, 18S).
Testing such impacts upon populations of organisms (i.e. at the catchment scale) has not proven straightforward and differences have emerged in the conclusions reached.
Differences were less pronounced for belowground organisms, i.e., nematode functional groups, microbial communities (based on phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis) and earthworm taxa.
These ideas point in the direction of many aspects of soils as expressions of the effects of genes through the effects of organisms (i.e., extended phenotypes).
Changes in the life cycle of organisms (i.e. phenology) are one of the most widely used early-warning indicators of climate change, yet this remains poorly understood throughout the tropics.
The structural complexity of habitats is typically created by communities of living organisms (i.e. habitat-forming organisms such as trees, canopy-forming seaweeds, oysters, wetland grasses, and corals), as well as abiotic features such as the underlying geomorphology, and/or three-dimensional structures of dead organisms6, 11.
