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Whether lack of dorsal surface tuberculation is a preservational or an ontogenetic effect remains unclear to us at the moment (possibility of an ontogenetic effect was rejected by Kunth 1870).
As the three specimens of D. holocanthus that we sampled are all around 105 mm, we cannot fully exclude that there is an ontogenetic effect biasing the characterization of the ocular morphology of this species.
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This led the authors to emphasise the contribution of ontogenetic effects on the emergence of social skills in socialised dogs and wolves [8].
What morphological differences there are among populations of H. leucophyllata could reflect ecophenotypic or ontogenetic effects as noted above.
Thus, while earlier, predominantly prenatal processes are undoubtedly crucial, species differences, such as those analyzed here, may be somewhat moderated by later ontogenetic effects.
For example, early ontogenetic effects on muscle morphology and swimming performance in zebrafish were found to be unaffected by subsequent acclimation of adults to different thermal regimes (Scott and Johnston 2012).
For example, dendrochronology studies (Savva et al. 2008; McLane et al. 2011) can be used to assess variation in tree rings in common garden experiments (Box 1), although ontogenetic effects of aging need to be separated from effects of temporal fluctuations in climate.
Ignoring such ontogenetic effects can lead to dubious conclusions with regard to the modes of speciation (i.e. Savolainen et al., 2006; for comments, see Stuessy, 2006) and on the existence (or not) of presumptive founder effects (Stuessy et al., 2012).
A study on plasticity of floral traits of Campanula rapunculoides with respect to genotype, environment and ontogeny suggested that correlation patterns among floral traits depended on the environment and the trade-off relationship between male and female function was confounded by ontogenetic effects [ 36].
Of particular interest are ontogenetic and edaphic effects on A. senegal performance in natural populations.
Although ontogenetic or positional effects have been considered in relation to covariation of floral traits, the importance of this aspect is still underappreciated for a full understanding of variation in floral traits.
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