These discrepancies are difficult to resolve because many of these studies, especially those comparing stimuli with a different physical nature (e.g., olfactory vs visual), employed different behavioral tasks (e.g., flight orientation or binary choice by walking flies) and/or conditioning designs (Brembs and Wiener, 2006; Brembs and Plendl, 2008; Pitman et al., 2009; Ofstad et al., 2011).
Behavior of single functional Or42a>ChR2 OSN in the background of a silenced and an intact peripheral olfactory system (1 vs 21 functional OSNs).
The remarkable features of the functional terms representing the hypermethylated genes identified in the heart and spleen of the MRL/MpJ mouse were associated with three groups: G-protein-coupled receptors, including mostly olfactory receptors, Ig-like V-type, and natural killer receptor Ly49 genes.
In higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds, mammals) there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves: olfactory (I), optic (II), oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), trigeminal (V), abducent (VI), facial (VII), vestibulocochlear (VIII), glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), accessory (XI), and hypoglossal (XII).
While no difference between standard and enriched animals has been detected in 10-days old BrdU-positive cells (t-test p = 0.47, St-1 vs EN-1; 5 animals per group; Fig. 1B), olfactory enrichment induces an increase in the density of 3 weeks old new-generated PGCs by 17% (t-test p<0.01, St-2 vs EN-2; 7 animals per group; Fig. 1B).
(A ) This 3-state olfactory system counts how many odors in the mixture are attractants vs repellents, and converts the result into three response categories (see text).
No difference between standard and enriched animals has been detected in 10-days old BrdU-positive cells (t-test p = 0.32, St-1 vs EN-1; 5 animals per group; Fig. 1C) while olfactory enrichment induces an increase in the density of 3 weeks old new-generated GCs (t-test p<0.01, St-2 vs EN-2; 7 animals per group; Fig. 1C).
Accordingly, both densitometric analysis of TH immunostaining (35×103 vs 7×103 Arbitrary Unit; t- test, p<0.001, standard vs deprived) and evaluation of the total number of TH positive PGCs (t- test, p<0.001, standard vs deprived; Fig. 5D), show a sharp reduction of TH expression in olfactory deprived animals.
Indeed, introducing additional negative feedback control of cell cycle speed v - as does occur with GDF11 in the olfactory epithelium [ 4] - can modestly extend the range of disturbance frequencies over which robust control can be achieved.
The last 20-member module V included regions such as bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdale, temporal pole, olfactory cortex, thalamus, caudate, putamen and pallidum that are components of limbic/paralimbic and subcortical systems.
(v) Can bumble bees discriminate between inbred and outbred plants based only on olfactory cues?
