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Furthermore, if mothers exhibited preferences for particular characteristics of their redd, the use of artificial nests could miss aspects of offspring adaptation to the specific incubation conditions locally adapted mothers usually create for them.
However, a growing number of parental effects have been described that contribute to offspring adaptation to local abiotic or biotic environmental conditions [ 18- 21].
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Molecular aspects of their reproduction, hybridisation between species, mitochondrial inheritance, skewed sex ratios of offspring and adaptation to climatic and pollution factors are priority areas.
Parents who self-identified as having BPD completed a web-based survey that assessed dispositional optimism, coping, perceived illness severity, perceived etiology of BPD, perceived risk to offspring, and adaptation to BPD.
This antagonistic parent-offspring co-adaptation does not require solicitation to be costly, allows for rapid divergence and evolutionary novelty and potentially explains the origin and diversification of the observed provisioning forms in family life.
While ecological collapse imposes greater challenges and stresses on the organisms adapted to previous ecology (i.e. strengthens selective pressures), by depleting the overall density of life forms, it relaxes the selection on their offspring with novel adaptations to the new situation.
Ma et al. show that exposure of Caenorhabditis elegans to mitochondrial stress triggers stress adaptation in offspring, which is mediated by 6mA DNA modification at mitochondrial unfolded-protein-response genes.
A factor of unknown structure is thought to be passed on from the mother to the offspring leading to an adaptation of metabolism that finally results in the observed diapause syndrome in the last larval instar [19], [20].
The parasite suppressed some Triops-induced defences: Daphnia lost the ability to produce a greater number of larger offspring, a life-history adaptation to Triops predation.
Likewise, in many systems, oviposition decisions by mothers can interact with offspring traits (for example, adaptation to the environment where they are deposited), generating correlational selection on maternal offspring combinations (that is, coadaptation between oviposition choice and offspring performance).
Boyd and Henrich's work brings out the fact that although population-level inheritance is important for adaptation, parent-offspring resemblance is not, in fact, necessary.
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