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Four means of valid knowledge are admitted: perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony.
Nagarjuna also directed criticism against the concept of pramana, or the means of valid knowledge.
In their epistemology, they viewed sense perception alone as a means of valid knowledge.
Since inference is not a means of valid knowledge, all such supersensible objects as "afterlife," "destiny," or "soul" do not exist.
Of the four main topics of the Nyaya-sutras (art of debate, means of valid knowledge, syllogism, and examination of opposed views), there is a long history.
Besides adducing these and other arguments, Udayana in his Nyaya-kusumanjali stressed the point that the nonexistence of God could not be proved by means of valid knowledge.
Similar(46)
Inferences are cognitions based on valid reasons that depend on this non-arbitrary use of language.[18] Among the philosophical issues that are important here is the fundamental question of how, if the world is only directly accessibly by perception, can one come to valid knowledge by means of inference that relies on words that do not directly refer to particulars?
Therefore, only the injunctions contained in the scriptures which, according to Mimamsa and the Hindu tradition, are not composed by any finite individual (apaurusheya)—are the sources of all valid knowledge of dharma.
Thus, it is an ideal domain to study the emergence of scientifically valid knowledge.
This abrupt separation of the individual and nature, in addition to his rejection of rational concepts as producing any valid knowledge of reality, reaffirms Ortega's denial of universal, fundamental principles of reality and, thus aligns him on the humanistic side of the natural sciences human sciences dichotomy.
It is the frank desire for an unvarnished and valid knowledge of oneself, a knowledge that may reveal the need for moral conversion, which permits the noetic agent to arrive at authentic knowledge of one's soul.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com