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The group delay time generally gives rough information of the ground range, which depends on the exact path of the radio wave in the ionosphere.
The slant ranges l 1,k and l 2,k can be expressed in terms of the ground range x k, the ionosphere altitude H, and the target altitude z k, as l 1, k = x k 2 + ( 2 H − z k ) 2, l 2, k = x k 2 + ( 2 H + z k ) 2. (12).
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The observation points are cement column with a depth of 1 m, which were made in the field, of which the port is 10 cm × 10 cm while the bottom is 30 cm × 30 cm, in spite of this, the part of the cement column on the ground ranges from 5 cm to 10 cm.
In order to show the interesting replacement effect of these two critical times, we generated the same target with the same height, azimuth size and shape except the slope of the roof but shortened the ground range size of the target to 50 m and generated the SAR raw data with a 10 km range.
In the figure the ordinate of the keogram represents the horizontal distance, and that of the Doppler velocity does the ground range from Rikubetsu: the 400 km ground range corresponds approximately to the 1140 km horizontal distance from point 1 in Fig. 7.
The maximum temperatures measured at the centre of the BTES at the depths of 2 60 m under the ground ranged from 69.0 °C to 78.5 °C.
Surface displacement of the ground might range from a few inches/centimeters to 3 feet in each direction.
The technique is based on cross-correlation analysis of the ground backscatter minimum range variations at different radar beams.
A radio link of ground range D = 1000 km was also simulated using ray tracing for a sample daytime ionosphere.
The maximum peak-to-peak amplitude of the disturbances was about 200 m/s (= 2v) at near ranges (Nishitani et al., 2011), corresponding to the actual upward and downward motions at ±112 m/s at a reflection altitude of 250 km at the 500 km ground range.
To see the high-speed wave propagation in the GPS-TEC keogram, Fig. 9 using the same format of Fig. 8(b) displays time and ground range variations of the Doppler velocity on beam 4 and TEC keogram along the broken line in Fig. 7.
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