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Interestingly, US federal wildland fire policy provides considerable discretion for managers to pursue a range of management objectives; however, societal expectations and existing management incentive structures result in policy implementation that is straining the resilience of fire adapted ecosystems and the communities that reside in and adjacent to them.
Most European forests are actively managed and there is great diversity in terms of management objectives, forest types and species (Figure 1).
Management goals and objectives were elicited and weighted using the following steps: (i) literature review of management objectives, (ii) development of a hierarchy tree of objectives, and (iii) ranking of management objectives using survey methods.
Monitoring systems are required to support critical reflection about the effectiveness of actions toward the achievement of management objectives.
The result is a diversity of treatments and a diversity of stand structures that sustain natural ecosystem processes and biodiversity for a range of management objectives.
Reasons for this change include a combination of new information and concerns about the ecological consequences of intensive forestry practices and a willingness on the part of many forest owners and society to embrace a wider set of management objectives.
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Adaptive management has explicit structure, including careful elucidation of goals, identification of alternative management objectives and hypotheses of causation, and procedures for the collection of data followed by evaluation and reiteration.
"Due to the removal of natural predators, deer management is required to meet a range of land management objectives, including sporting, conservation, protection of woodlands and public safety.
Local communities or small-scale forest operators face difficulties in adjusting traditional practices to implement official forestry regulations, that are usually drafted with little harmonization of different management objectives and also little consideration of local socio-ecological contexts.
The scenic qualities of the national park landscape are analysed in terms of the management objectives and with the appropriate tools.
Increasingly sophisticated climate science will not increase the probability of achieving management objectives if institutions and regulations constrain the implementation of adaptation strategies (Hannah and others 2002; Scott and others 2002; Moser and Ekstrom 2010).
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