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Childhood poverty leads to lower academic and occupational achievement, in part, because the multiple risks typically faced by children growing up in poverty lead to chronic stress, which in turn, negatively affects children's cognitive abilities to succeed in school.
Positive effects are found for life-satisfaction, self-esteem, self-rated health, and for educational and occupational achievement, functional ability, and mortality.
19 Some studies show that an unsatisfactory educational background can be translated into lower educational and occupational achievement.
The authors of DSM-IV-TR comment that stuttering interferes with educational or occupational achievement or with social communication.
Gjerustad [ 36] found that achieving occupational aspiration was significantly related to sickness absence in a longitudinal study of Norwegian youths; a high occupational achievement indicated lower sickness absence.
Furthermore, the symptoms can cause significant distress and impairment, and are pervasive (i.e., impairment is observed in many areas of life, such as school performance, social function, and occupational achievement).
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SES was assessed based on the parents' educational and occupational achievements in accordance with a commonly used and established standardized procedure (36).
The first hypothesis, the social causation, suggests that the socioeconomic status influences health and the second hypothesis, the social selection, suggests that poor health limits individual's educational and occupational achievements, leading to lower socioeconomic status in adulthood.
Students who were assigned to all but the top ability group reported they felt that their class assignment had constrained their future academic and occupational achievements as well as setting them up for low attainment in life [ 35].
Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity is presented in the Manual [ 31], and a large literature demonstrates cross-observer agreement and prediction of external criteria such as psychological well-being, health risk behaviors, educational and occupational achievements, coping mechanisms, and longevity [ 31, 32].
Variables pertaining to age, gender, ethnicity, educational achievement, occupational status, marital status, and presenting complaints were collected.
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