This result is similar to that of Guven and Lee (2015), who also find a negative association between being male and cognitive functioning (for verbal fluency, immediate and delayed recall and a summary cognitive score, but not for numeracy) in a sample of elderly Europeans.
The first two lines of Table 2 report some basic descriptive statistics for the indicators of proficiency in literacy and numeracy for the pooled sample of all PIAAC participating countries.
To fill this gap, we evaluated health numeracy levels in a sample of Japanese adults by translating two well-known scales that objectively measure basic understanding of math and probability: the 3-item numeracy scale developed by Schwartz and colleagues (the Schwartz scale) and its expanded version, the 11-item numeracy scale developed by Lipkus and colleagues (the Lipkus scale).
In the employment regressions, the coefficient on numeracy skills in the pooled sample remains unchanged when numeracy is instrumented with literacy and increases by 16% when the first plausible value of numeracy is instrumented with the second plausible value [rows (2) and (3) of Table 2].
Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies, percentages) were conducted to depict sociodemographic and HL and numeracy characteristics of the study sample.
However, in spite of generally high numeracy, the performance of Japanese sample on the Schwartz-J and Lipkus-J tests still accounted for susceptibility to the framing effect, which can influence patients' decisions regarding their medical options, such as acceptance of surgery (e.g. [ 12, 19, 38]; however, empirical results on framing effects in a clinical setting are mixed, reviewed in [ 39]).
Population shares (temporary and (D^textit{OJT})) or averages ((n^textit{OJT}), literacy, and numeracy) using weights of the whole sample.
However, returns to experience and on-the-job training are lower, while returns to numeracy skills are higher for this older sample of individuals.
For example, in the online sample, 16% of the subjects were of low numeracy and 37% of high numeracy whereas in the clinic population 52% were of low numeracy and only 5% of high numeracy.
Although intended to measure different skills, PIAAC literacy and numeracy scales are strongly correlated (0.85 in our sample).
