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Figure 15 Null model generation.

The null model has two purposes.

Figure 4 Comparison with a null model.

Building on the null model, the student-level variables were added into the null model.

Table 3 presents the results of the null model.

The multilevel model building begins with a null model.

By comparing all models to the null model, we tested whether any additional covariates explained more variance than the null model.

The most memory and time consuming operation was the null model generation: each null model required 6 GB of memory and 4 hours of computing.

Single-nucleotide null model.

Null model I is the null model implemented in Nestedness Calculator software [33].

We choose the configuration model [39] as our null model.