Parental stress is associated with negative parenting behaviors, e.g. lower levels of parental sensitivity and reciprocity, and high parental stress is seen among abusive and negligent parents [ 52]. 2. Caregiving representation.
Second, it is not clear whether the child's temperament influences the negative parenting attitude or whether the negative parenting contributes to the development of externalizing or internalizing problems.
As parents with PD have been reported in some studies to have a rejecting and overprotective parenting style [ 76, 77], it is plausible that negative parenting mediates the relationship between parental PD and impaired facial affect recognition in offspring.
Interestingly, mothers who were negatively parented themselves seem more likely to exhibit negative parenting towards their offspring [ 7], as do mothers who were physically abused as children [ 21].
69 Adverse social and family environments such as low parental education, social class, poverty, bullying/peer victimisation, negative parenting, maltreatment and family discord are associated with ADHD.
The existing literature on predictors of negative parenting has been somewhat focused on the issues of parental stressors, particularly in relation to parental depression where an association with negative parenting is well established [ 2, 6, 19, 21, 23– 26], but also parental anxiety disorders [ 2], parental dissociative disorders [ 21] and maternal substance abuse [ 27].
Negative parenting practices such as harsh or inconsistent parenting, poor parental monitoring and the lack of reasonable boundaries and limits around adolescent behavior, can also place adolescents at risk for adverse outcomes [ 7, 9, 15- 19].
Economic disadvantage is related to negative parenting behaviors such as high levels of strict discipline and low levels of parental warmth [e.g., [ 17]].
As expected, the most difficult children were in homes with both the most negative parenting and the greatest level of chaos.
