Strong effect modifiers that increase mutation rates are called mutators [ 12, 50].
According to the mutational-hazard hypothesis, introns with higher mutation rates are more likely to be eliminated.
Evolutionary theory predicts that mutational decay is inevitable for small asexual populations, provided deleterious mutation rates are high enough.
Mutation rates are generally lower in bacteria and other microorganisms than in more complex species.
Although mutation rates are low, new mutants appear continuously in nature, because there are many individuals in every species and many gene loci in every individual.
The allelic variations that make evolution possible are generated by the process of mutation, but new mutations change gene frequencies very slowly, because mutation rates are low.
Mutation rates are considered to be constant or externally regulated.
bThe spontaneous mutation rates are the average of at least three.
The crossover and mutation rates are adaptive and may be decremented in 0.01 by each generation.
Genetic variation fuels Darwinian evolution, yet spontaneous mutation rates are maintained at low levels to ensure cellular viability.
Second, the relevant mutation rates are much, much higher in the immune system than in ordinary gene-based selection.
