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Most importantly, we are far from uncovering the multiple, pleiotropic functions of genes.
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The p63 gene is a member of the p53 family that is expressed as multiple isoforms with pleiotropic functions.
This gene has multiple pleiotropic effects on macrophage function, including regulation of cytokine production, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-1 β, inducible nitric oxide synthase and regulation of major histocompatibility complex class II expression and antigen presentation functions [7], [8].
Interleukin-17 has pleiotropic functions with multiple targets, in which it has been reported to regulate cellular proliferation, angiogenesis and metastasis in many cancer cells.
The divergent expression pattern of RIPK1 in different types of cancers is likely a consequence of its pleiotropic functions in multiple signaling pathways.
More recently, several other genes with quite diverse functions have been found to be directly regulated by Notch signaling [7], [8], implying that Notch exerts its pleiotropic functions by acting through multiple specific targets.
Considering that IL-10 is pleiotropic functions, further studies are necessary to evaluate the immune state.
In addition, cytokines have pleiotropic functions and some cytokines show paradoxical activities under different settings.
In addition to their complex expression patterns, DOCK family members exhibit pleiotropic functions in development.
Vg, a major reproductive protein, has been proposed to perform pleiotropic functions including immune defense reaction.
Assessing the role of flagellin in caspase-1 activation is challenging due to its pleiotropic functions.
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