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An effective malaria vaccine may need to target multiple parasite antigens from different stages of the life cycle.
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On the other hand, a significant degree of protection mediated by antibodies is induced through years of exposure to natural infection with multiple parasite lines and antigens.
Multiple immunochromatographic tests, incorporating a number of different parasite antigens and produced by many different manufacturers, are now available.
All dogs developed similar IgG antibody response to parasite antigens.
Further, identification of other parasite antigens may provide insights into their role in the host-parasite interaction.
Mannosylated lipid core peptides (MLCPs) were used as targeting ligands for the liposome-encapsulated parasite antigens.
Reports of anthelmintic resistance to multiple drugs in individual parasite species, and in multiple parasite species across virtually all livestock hosts, are increasingly common.
Adjuvants are known to modulate the specificity of antibodies elicited against some parasite antigens [19], [20].
CD56dim NK cells are known to be cytolytic [1] and so may have activity against host cells harbouring parasites and expressing parasite antigens or stress molecules.
Natural, skin-initiated infections however, pre-establish antigen-specific tolerance to parasite antigens presented in the skin and LN (Fig. 3A).
There is considerable evidence that dietary antigens [24], [40], allergens [25], [41], [42], [43] and parasite antigens [11], [44] transfer from the maternal to fetal environment in utero.
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