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PKB has multiple metabolic effects in various cell types [49] and GLP-1 acutely activates PKB in INS cells [27] and human islets [29].
Given its multiple metabolic effects, this decline in DHEA levels has been thought to play a role in the aging process [ 80].
Besides these well-known functions, AVP has multiple metabolic effects: AVP activates release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior hypophysis (V2R), mediates hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis through V1aR and stimulates glucagon and insulin secretion from pancreatic islets (V3R).
Second, interruption of the C3–(C3a)–C3a-desarg/ASP–C5a-like C3a-desarg/ASP C5a-likeay C3a-desarg/ASP C5a-likel had multiple metaboliC3a-desarg/ASP C5a-likeduced treceptorycerol synthesis in adipose tissue and delayed triacylglycerol and glucose clearance [ 9].
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On the other hand, heavy alcohol intake has multiple deleterious metabolic effects, including excess caloric intake and obesity, increased triglyceride levels, pancreatitis, disturbance of carbohydrate and glucose metabolism, and impairment of liver function (37).
Preclinical studies with rimonabant demonstrated multiple peripheral metabolic effects, including reduced lipogenesis and free fatty acid synthesis preventing hepatic fat accumulation, increased adiponectin release, and improved skeletal muscle glucose uptake (12, 20– 20).
The mechanism of protection probably involves multiple effects including metabolic effects, antioxidant mechanisms, activation of KATP channels, as well as inhibition of inflammatory cell activation.
Cd2+ has multiple cytotoxic and metabolic effects, such as interfering with the normal actions of essential metals [ 1], including oxidative stress and altering the activities of various enzymes [ 2– 4].
Insulin has multiple metabolic and non-metabolic effects on the myocardium but their relative importance is unclear.
These favorable effects of liraglutide on multiple metabolic pathways may have beneficial effects on atherosclerosis and possibly reduce risk for cardiovascular disease.
Increasing evidence suggests that boosting NAD+ levels could be clinically beneficial, as it activates the NAD+/sirtuin pathway which yields beneficial effects on multiple metabolic pathways.
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