AKT regulates protein synthesis through the phosphorylation of multiple downstream targets that function together to control all stages of mRNA translation from ribosome biogenesis to translation initiation and elongation.
These modifications and related gene regulatory behaviors support the "histone code" hypothesis [ 28], i.e. that multiple histone modifications specify unique downstream functions.
Remarkably, Ras GTPases exert their functions through multiple downstream effectors, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AM), regulating various cellular processes such as cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation [7].
PHR proteins function through multiple downstream signaling pathways.
Pyk2-mediated functions were performed by activating multiple downstream signaling molecules, including ERK, p38, c-Src and paxillin, which led to the differential regulation of cell invasion in various cell types [ 31- 34].
Our data suggests that in Tregs from T1D subjects, both the AKT and p53 pathways exert pro-apoptotic function through transcriptional regulation of multiple downstream targets that render the cells sensitive to apoptosis.
Receptor activation is often accompanied by the phosphorylation and ubiquitination of multiple sites, which generates signaling barcodes to direct various downstream functions, as in the activation of β2 adrenergic receptor and insulin receptor.
This clustering promotes intracellular signaling, resulting in the formation of tight focal adhesions, actin cytoskeletal assembly, and activation of multiple downstream signaling pathways that influence a variety of cellular functions [ 27– 29].
The pleiotropic effects of HOXA10 on endometrial differentiation and function are likely modulated through the regulation of multiple downstream targets that are necessary for the implantation process (Daftary et al., 2002; Troy et al., 2003).
RAGE functions as a signal transduction receptor for AGEs and A β, activating multiple downstream intracellular pathways.
