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Whether local winds skew dispersal in temperate forest stands remains less clear because most dispersal studies assume a symmetric two-dimensional kernel when model fitting, which is increasingly questionable for wind-dispersed species [6], [50].
For instance, we have to assume that all possible sources for immigrants were properly surveyed, and that spatial scales were adequately chosen to detect most dispersal movements in the surveys that provided the dispersal metrics used here.
Most dispersal events were relatively recent, suggesting that waterfowl dispersals are likely given transoceanic distribution.
However, for SEE03 most dispersal rates tested produced admixture levels not different from the observed data (Table 3).
It was possible to distinguish death from dispersal as most dispersal events are induced through intense aggression from dominant group members (known as eviction) (Cant et al. 2001).
In our population, male dispersal rates were on average twice as high as female dispersal rates, and most dispersal events occured in juveniles as they reached adult size [ 17] i.e. between 3 and 5 months old [ 22, 23].
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The most abundant dispersal syndrome was animal dispersal, with 1776 individuals and 83 species, followed by wind dispersal, with 253 individuals and 31 species, and self dispersal, with 206 individuals and 9 species (Table 1).
However, comparative data suggest that most juvenile dispersal is "voluntary" [16], because the costs of dispersal may be low when unoccupied areas are available to immigrants [17].
Because these areas are usually too small to contain self-seeding populations of most high dispersal marine species [7], networks of protected areas connected by dispersal are often required [8], [9], [10].
Most probably, dispersal between different populations is a relatively rare event taking place as passive aerial dispersal of very small larvae [ 31].
Although myrmecochory is by far the most common dispersal method, white-tailed deer have also been shown to disperse the seeds on rare occasions by ingestion and defecation.
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