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Our results suggest that certain P. parae morphs have evolved the use of overt aggression as an AMS.
Polymorphisms involving both benthic and limnetic forms and differences in lateral plate number have been extensively studied in sticklebacks, and it has been found that similar morphs have evolved repeatedly and independently, primarily representing postglacial divergence [ 10- 12].
Coregonids show extensive potential for homoplasy in morphological traits [ 9, 16, 28], and the possibility certainly exists that similar morphs have evolved repeatedly and independently within the region from the Rhine River in the South to the Varde River in the North.
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These behavioural patterns suggest that the immaculata morph has evolved a strategy to circumvent male agonistic interactions and female mate choice (e.g., [ 5, 52, 53]).
Consequently, we predicted that cuckoo-egg morphs should have evolved for abundant host species [ 16].
The morphs are thought to have evolved through a phenomenon called mimetic radiation, in which a species comes to closely resemble different model species.
To investigate if the morph frequencies on the islets have evolved in parallel, we performed a logistic regression with a binomial distribution and a logit link, where orange allele or not orange allele is the dependent variable and habitat (islet or mainland) the main effect.
In accordance with the hypothesis of demographic characteristics of hosts affecting the resolution of the trade-off for the ability to adapt optimally to different hosts (see above), we predicted that specific egg-morphs of European cuckoos should have evolved in hosts that are evenly distributed at high density in their European range.
In the case of morphing between homologs, the intermediate structures give us clues to how protein structures have evolved.
The morphs displayed by these species are remarkably similar, and in the case of T. grallator may have evolved repeatedly, subsequent to colonization of each of the Hawaiian islands [ 10].
Because conspecific individuals differing in morph-type are virtually identical in overall (floral, vegetative) phenotype [ 47, 48], selfing may have evolved only recently and multiple times within clade C.
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