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Although Brookesia (Madagascan leaf chameleons) and Rhampholeon (African leaf chameleons) were once grouped into a common subfamily Brookesiinae [ 5], another morphological study based on osteological characters [ 6] suggested the basal divergence of Brookesia alone.
A morphological study based on characters of the thorax contributed by Friedrich and Beutel (2010) [ 79] offered two scenarios depending on the phylogenetic algorithm used: Coleopterida as the most basal group in the Bayesian analysis, but Hymeoptera as the most basal when using parsimony.
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The grouping of Gliridae and Sciuridae has been recognized in morphological studies based on middle ear features [ 37], arterial pattern [ 38], and by most molecular analyses.
Morphological studies based on gill raker counts and head length [ 22, 30] found enough phenotypic variation to differentiate two subspecies, S. p. pilchardus (Eastern Atlantic Ocean, from the North Sea to Southern Portugal) and S. p. sardina (Mediterranean Sea and Northwest African coast).
Similarly, the morphological studies based on the absence of kinetoplast in a variable proportion of the population ranging from 0% (T. equinum) to 100% or intermediary (T. venezuelense) did not lead to any substantial distinction, and the dyskinetoplastic (or even akinetoplastic) strains are no longer regarded as different from T. evansi.
In a 1988 study based on morphological data, Compagno tentatively grouped it with the smalltail shark (C. porosus), blackspot shark (C. sealei), spottail shark (C. sorrah), creek whaler (C. fitzroyensis), whitecheek shark (C. dussumieri), Borneo shark (C. borneensis), and hardnose shark (C. macloti).
Additional sampling at their contact zone and a new taxonomic study based on morphological traits of E. suaveolens individuals from Central and West Africa would be justified to assess whether they might be considered as distinct morphological (sub-) species.
The diagnostic technique of parasites done in this study, based on the morphological characteristics of ova under light microscope, has the disadvantage that it fails to distinguish E. granulosus from other Taenidae.
The relationships of Morpho and related genera are taken from a morphological study [ 65] and a molecular study based on one gene, wingless [ 66].
In summary, classical and most recent morphological and molecular studies based on nuclear data support the Mecopterida and Coleopterida hypotheses.
Previous morphological and molecular studies based on nuclear markers recovered Caenogastropoda and Heterobranchia as sister taxa, conforming the Apogastropoda [ 26, 28, 31, 35, 56].
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